General Motors, Waymo and Daimler-Bosch have taken the lead in autonomous driving systems, according to a new Leaderboard Report for Navigant Research,

Navigant reports the three companies have continued progress in the development of automated driving systems, with efforts shifting from research and development to more practical elements of production engineering as well as business development. The company identified “mobility as a service” models, such as automated ride-hailing pilot programs as likely points for autonomous vehicles to enter the market.

“For the past several years, there has been a lot of discussion about whether the technology or automotive industries will come out on top in the effort to develop and deploy automated vehicles,” said Navigant Research senior research analyst Sam Abuelsamid. “Increasingly, both groups have come to the conclusion that the answer is and rather than or as they partner up to leverage each other’s strengths to build robust, scalable solutions.”

The full report, which tracks the strategy and execution of 19 leaders in automated driving, is available for purchase on Navigant’s website.